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‎Gemfile.lock

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‎_artifacts/ac_beat-spa.md

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---
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layout: post
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title: Electrical Ground Loop Interference AC Beat
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namevar: [Video hum]
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categories: video analog
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tags: [Analog, Audio, Video, Electrical, Cable, Device Error, Common Artifacts]
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lang: Español
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---
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A ground loop is caused by the existence of more than one path to ground. If a signal is passed from one electronic component to another via an unbalanced connection, the difference in the ground potential causes an errant current to flow through the cables. This current flow can create a distortion in the video or audio signal. One type of ground loop interference, AC Beat, is exhibited as a bar of milky luminance that rolls from the bottom to the top of the screen. Ground loop is audible as a 60 Hz hum in the audio signal.
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## Can it be fixed?
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If ground loop problems are recorded in the video or audio signal, they are only correctable through re-transfer of the content without the electrical anomalies in the system. Usually, this involves powering all devices in the video system using one source of electricity with all outlets serving power with minimal difference in ground potential.
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## Example(s)
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<img src="{{ site.baseurl }}/images/EGLI_AC_Beat_Flat.jpg" height="450" width="500"><br>
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<sub>Watch for the horizontal band rolling up caused by the ground loop.</sub>
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<iframe src="https://ia601504.us.archive.org/19/items/ElectricalgroundLoopInterference/ElectronicInterference.mp4" width="560" height="315" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="true" mozallowfullscreen="true" allowfullscreen></iframe>
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<sub> An example of a ground loop problem that was recorded onto a 1/2" open reel tape</sub>

‎_artifacts/ac_beat.md

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namevar: [Video hum]
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categories: video analog
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tags: [Analog, Audio, Video, Electrical, Cable, Device Error, Common Artifacts]
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published: true
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lang: English
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---
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A ground loop is caused by the existence of more than one path to ground. If a signal is passed from one electronic component to another via an unbalanced connection, the difference in the ground potential causes an errant current to flow through the cables. This current flow can create a distortion in the video or audio signal. One type of ground loop interference, AC Beat, is exhibited as a bar of milky luminance that rolls from the bottom to the top of the screen. Ground loop is audible as a 60 Hz hum in the audio signal.

‎_artifacts/analog_distortion-spa.md

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---
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layout: post
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title: Analog Distortion
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categories: audio analog
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namevar: [Overload distortion, Harmonic distortion, Transient distortion, Nonlinear distortion, Intermodulation distortion]
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tags: [Analog, Audio, Operator Error, Levels Too Hot, Noise, Clipping]
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lang: Español
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---
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In audio, distortion is heard as an unwanted signal change. This is somewhat of a catchall term for such artifacts as [Wow and Flutter]({{ site.baseurl }}/artifacts/wow_and_flutter.html) that are, by definition, a distortion of the original signal.<sup><a href="#fn1" id="ref1">1</a></sup> Analog distortion is an artifact recorded into an analog carrier or introduced in an analog signal chain, while Digital Distortion occurs during digitization and post A/D conversion.
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In this artifact guide, analog distortion is the term used to describe a recording where the levels are too hot in the source recording. “Hot levels” means that the input signal level exceeds the recording device’s linear range, and is also known as “overload.” The volume is too high throughout the recording, and thus all distortion artifact noises are also loud. Unfortunately, most unique and archival recordings were done by non-professionals, who made simple mistakes, which are difficult to fix.
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## Can it be fixed?
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When the distortion is in the source recording, there is not much that can be done during digitization to correct it. Post-production, there are several tools available that are well suited to spectral repair and fixing overloads:
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1. [iZotope RX suite](http://www.izotope.com/products/audio/rx/)
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2. [DeNoiseLF](http://www.clickrepair.net/software_info/denoise.html)
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3. [Adobe Audition](https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=gZjlS0tD-Wg)
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Attempts to remove distortion noise may adversely affect the harmonics of a sound and thus change the quality of the voice or sound that was captured. Removing distortion is a balance between taking out undesirable frequencies while keeping component frequencies that make up the harmonic of a sound unaffected. It is careful to keep this in mind while cleaning up the recording for production masters or access copies.
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## Example(s)
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<iframe width="100%" height="450" scrolling="no" frameborder="no" src="https://w.soundcloud.com/player/?url=https%3A//api.soundcloud.com/tracks/96774470&amp;auto_play=false&amp;hide_related=false&amp;show_comments=true&amp;show_user=true&amp;show_reposts=false&amp;visual=true"></iframe><sub>Listen to analog distortion on SoundCloud.</sub>
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## References
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<sup id="fn1">1. Glenn D. White and Gary J. Louie, _The audio dictionary_ (3rd ed.), (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2005), 114-115. <a href="#ref1" title="Jump back to footnote 1 in the text.">↩</a></sup>

‎_artifacts/analog_distortion.md

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categories: audio analog
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namevar: [Overload distortion, Harmonic distortion, Transient distortion, Nonlinear distortion, Intermodulation distortion]
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tags: [Analog, Audio, Operator Error, Levels Too Hot, Noise, Clipping]
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published: true
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lang: English
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---
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In audio, distortion is heard as an unwanted signal change. This is somewhat of a catchall term for such artifacts as [Wow and Flutter]({{ site.baseurl }}/artifacts/wow_and_flutter.html) that are, by definition, a distortion of the original signal.<sup><a href="#fn1" id="ref1">1</a></sup> Analog distortion is an artifact recorded into an analog carrier or introduced in an analog signal chain, while Digital Distortion occurs during digitization and post A/D conversion.

‎_artifacts/analog_noise-spa.md

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---
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layout: post
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title: Analog Noise
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categories: audio analog
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tags: [Analog, Audio, Noise, Magnetic Tape, Cassette, Common Artifacts]
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lang: Español
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---
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Noise can be defined as any unwanted sound that is not related to the wanted sound. If it is related, it is called [Analog Distortion]({{ site.baseurl }}/artifacts/analog_distortion.html). Noise is defined as a wideband addition to a signal by any electronic or mechanical component.<sup><a href="#fn1" id="ref1">1</a></sup> There are many things that add noise to a signal, and there is no such thing as a noise free signal. In addition to noise introduced by the analog deck, the size of the tape’s own magnetic particles can cause what is called “tape hiss.”
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The most common type of noise is “broadband noise,” which is a continuous distribution of energy spread over frequency. It sounds like hissing and has no detectable pitch.<sup><a href="#fn2" id="ref2">2</a></sup> [Hum]({{ site.baseurl }}/artifacts/hum_and_buzz.html) and [Electromagnetic Interference]({{ site.baseurl }}/artifacts/electromagnetic_interference.html) are other types of noise that do have a detectable pitch.<sup><a href="#fn3" id="ref3">3</a></sup>
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## Can it be fixed?
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During digitization, nothing should be done to correct or reduce noise, if that noise is recorded into the source. However, all efforts should be taken to eliminate hum and EMI noise if either is introduced during the transfer process. For tapes that were recorded with Noise Reduction, please see our [Noise Reduction]({{ site.baseurl }}/artifacts/noise_reduction.html) page. The good news is that noise is relatively easy to fix post-production. Most audio editing software has noise detection and removal tools. Several are listed below:
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1. [DeNoise](http://www.clickrepair.net/software_info/denoise.html)
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2. [Adobe Audition](https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=gZjlS0tD-Wg)
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3. [IzotopeRX 2](http://www.izotope.com/products/audio/rx/download.asp)
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4. [Waves Restoration Suite](http://www.waves.com/Content.aspx?id=197)
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## Example(s)
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<iframe width="100%" height="450" scrolling="no" frameborder="no" src="https://w.soundcloud.com/player/?url=https%3A//api.soundcloud.com/tracks/98723503&amp;auto_play=false&amp;hide_related=false&amp;show_comments=true&amp;show_user=true&amp;show_reposts=false&amp;visual=true"></iframe><sub>Listen to crackle in a cassette transfer on SoundCloud</sub>
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## References
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<sup id="fn1">1. Glenn D. White and Gary J. Louie, _The audio dictionary_ (3rd ed.), (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2005), 156. <a href="#ref1" title="Jump back to footnote 1 in the text.">↩</a></sup>
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<sup id="fn2">2. Glenn D. White and Gary J. Louie, _The audio dictionary_ (3rd ed.), (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2005), 156. <a href="#ref2" title="Jump back to footnote 2 in the text.">↩</a></sup>
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<sup id="fn3">3. Glenn D. White, _The audio dictionary_ (1st ed.), (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1987), 116. <a href="#ref3" title="Jump back to footnote 3 in the text.">↩</a></sup>

‎_artifacts/analog_noise.md

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title: Analog Noise
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categories: audio analog
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tags: [Analog, Audio, Noise, Magnetic Tape, Cassette, Common Artifacts]
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lang: English
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---
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Noise can be defined as any unwanted sound that is not related to the wanted sound. If it is related, it is called [Analog Distortion]({{ site.baseurl }}/artifacts/analog_distortion.html). Noise is defined as a wideband addition to a signal by any electronic or mechanical component.<sup><a href="#fn1" id="ref1">1</a></sup> There are many things that add noise to a signal, and there is no such thing as a noise free signal. In addition to noise introduced by the analog deck, the size of the tape’s own magnetic particles can cause what is called “tape hiss.”

‎_artifacts/analogue_slip-spa.md

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---
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layout: post
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title: Analogue Slipping
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categories: film analog
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tags: [Analog, Film]
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published: true
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lang: Español
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---
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The «original» film strip has slipped in the gate at a cement splice during the photochemical printing.
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## Can it be fixed?
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Not in the actual print, because usually not all images are fully present. A new print should be made, alternatively the «original» digitised instead of the print. In the present example the print can be digitally restored up to one frame which is incomplete.
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## Example(s)
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<img src="{{ site.baseurl }}/images/analogue_slip.gif">

‎_artifacts/analogue_slip.md

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title: Analogue Slipping
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categories: film analog
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tags: [Analog, Film]
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published: true
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lang: English
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---
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The «original» film strip has slipped in the gate at a cement splice during the photochemical printing.

‎_artifacts/audio_dropout-spa.md

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---
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layout: post
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title: Audio Dropout
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categories: audio analog digital
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tags: [Analog, Digital, Audio, Magnetic Tape, Cleaning]
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lang: Español
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---
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Audio dropout is a brief reduction or loss of signal that occurs during playback, and it can be found in both analog and digital audio tape sources. Read about digital dropout [here]({{ site.baseurl }}/artifacts/digital_audio_dropout.html). Dropout is the result of a defect in the carrier or playback mechanism. Analog audio dropout is caused by anything that diminishes the uniformity of the magnetic media, such as dust, tape damage, or a defect in the tape stock.
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## Can it be fixed?
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Dropouts can often be reduced, but they can be difficult to eliminate during playback. If you get a recording with dropout, your best bet is to clean the playback heads and re-digitize. Should dropouts persist, production or access copies of files can be remediated using software tools (for example, [Izotope Spectral Repair](http://help.izotope.com/docs/rx/pages/userguide_spectralrepair.htm)) that use digital signal processing (DSP) techniques to resynthesize gaps in audio content.
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## Example(s)
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<iframe src="https://archive.org/embed/AVAAAudioDropout" width="560" height="315" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="true" mozallowfullscreen="true" allowfullscreen></iframe>
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<sub>Visualization of an audio dropout from 1/4" open reel audio. It can be seen as the visual spike around 9 seconds in. </sub>

‎_artifacts/audio_dropout.md

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title: Audio Dropout
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categories: audio analog digital
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tags: [Analog, Digital, Audio, Magnetic Tape, Cleaning]
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lang: English
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---
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Audio dropout is a brief reduction or loss of signal that occurs during playback, and it can be found in both analog and digital audio tape sources. Read about digital dropout [here]({{ site.baseurl }}/artifacts/digital_audio_dropout.html). Dropout is the result of a defect in the carrier or playback mechanism. Analog audio dropout is caused by anything that diminishes the uniformity of the magnetic media, such as dust, tape damage, or a defect in the tape stock.

‎_artifacts/audio_overwrite-spa.md

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---
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layout: post
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title: Audio Overwrite
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categories: audio analog digital
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tags: [Audio, Analog, Digital]
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lang: Español
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---
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Overwrite refers to the interruption of one program recording with another, or the partial erasure of an old program when a new program is recorded. In instances of the former, it is unlike an edit in that it is not performed for creative effect, it is generally disruptive to the program in progress, and it is usually but not exclusively accidental. Overwrite can happen when tape stock is intentionally or unintentionally reused. Depending on how the overwrite is performed, it can be obvious or hidden. Overwriting footage using insert editing functions on professional VTRs or non-linear editors in a studio environment can produce an invisible overwrite, where as an overwrite that is simply crash-recorded without any kind of preparation may produce a temporary loss of sync in the image, and/or other distortions. Cassettes have record safety tabs that help reduce accidental overwrite in production environments. In preservation facilities, the "record inhibit" function, if available, should always be engaged on playback decks to avoid accidents.
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## Can it be fixed?
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No, once a video or audio program is overwritten, it is effectively erased and cannot be restored.
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## Examples
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<iframe width="100%" height="450" scrolling="no" frameborder="no" src="https://w.soundcloud.com/player/?url=https%3A//api.soundcloud.com/tracks/99257207&amp;auto_play=false&amp;hide_related=false&amp;show_comments=true&amp;show_user=true&amp;show_reposts=false&amp;visual=true"></iframe>
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<sub>Listen to an audio overwrite in SoundCloud</sub>
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‎_artifacts/audio_overwrite.md

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title: Audio Overwrite
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categories: audio analog digital
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tags: [Audio, Analog, Digital]
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lang: English
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---
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Overwrite refers to the interruption of one program recording with another, or the partial erasure of an old program when a new program is recorded. In instances of the former, it is unlike an edit in that it is not performed for creative effect, it is generally disruptive to the program in progress, and it is usually but not exclusively accidental. Overwrite can happen when tape stock is intentionally or unintentionally reused. Depending on how the overwrite is performed, it can be obvious or hidden. Overwriting footage using insert editing functions on professional VTRs or non-linear editors in a studio environment can produce an invisible overwrite, where as an overwrite that is simply crash-recorded without any kind of preparation may produce a temporary loss of sync in the image, and/or other distortions. Cassettes have record safety tabs that help reduce accidental overwrite in production environments. In preservation facilities, the "record inhibit" function, if available, should always be engaged on playback decks to avoid accidents.

‎_artifacts/audio_phase_error-spa.md

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---
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layout: post
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title: Audio Phase Error
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categories: audio analog
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tags: [Analog, Audio, Phase, Mono, Stereo]
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lang: Español
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---
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Problems with phase in audio result in many different symptoms. Its control is a high-level topic at the heart of audio engineering.
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Phase error as a term used to describe when certain frequencies are partially or wholly cancelled out of a recording. Phase is an issue when more than one channel is used to record a single source. Often these errors do not become evident until the recording is switched to mono. All of these things make phase error hard to identify.
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### Background
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The concept of phase in sound is most easily explained when comparing two sine waves. When their cycle match, they are said to be “in phase,” and produce the best quality sound. If one is inverted so that the peaks of one sine wave occur at the same time as the troughs of the second sine wave, they would cancel each other out, and no sound at all would be heard. If the cycles are slightly off, there is a partial cancellation, which silences certain frequencies.
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### Causes
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Phase error can be the result of time delay due to poor microphone placement during recording, a poorly made cable, a misaligned repro tape head on playback, a poorly aligned stylus/cartridge, etc. Heard over a pair of speakers relatively close together, phase cancellation is most apparent at low frequencies, resulting in a signal that sounds thin, with little to no bass.<sup><a href="#fn1" id="ref1">1</a></sup>
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### Identification
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A phasescope is a graphic representation of an audio signal, which is included in most audio editing software. You will see an example of one on the right side of this page. On a phasescope, a perfectly in-phase signal will be completely vertical and totally thin. A perfectly out-of-phase signal will be completely horizontal and totally thin. Most out-of-phase signals fall somewhere in between the two, resembling an American football.
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As shown in the image to the right, a correlation meter is present at the bottom of most phasescopes. On a correlation meter, an out-of-phase signal will oscillate between -1 and 0. An in phase signal, on the other hand, will be between 0 and +1, where 0 means perfectly stereo and +1 means perfectly mono.
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## Can it be fixed?
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It depends on how and when the problem was created. Conceptually, you could nudge one of the signals over until they match, but as this can be very tedious, near impossible to get right, and may not restore the recording to its proper sound quality (as in the case of digital processing of an analog-tape-to-digital transfer done with an incorrect azimuth setting).
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It is best to consult a qualified engineer or technician if you believe that there is a phase problem.
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At least two companies offer plug-ins to correct phase-related issues as post-production: [Cedar Audio's Phase Corrector plug-in](https://www.cedar-audio.com/products/cambridge/camphase.shtml) and [Cube-Tec's azimuth plugin](https://www.cube-tec.com/en-uk/products/workflow/dobbin/software-architecture/fpus/restoration)).
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## Example(s)
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<iframe width="100%" height="450" scrolling="no" frameborder="no" src="https://w.soundcloud.com/player/?url=https%3A//api.soundcloud.com/tracks/105266360&amp;auto_play=false&amp;hide_related=false&amp;show_comments=true&amp;show_user=true&amp;show_reposts=false&amp;visual=true"></iframe>
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<sub>Listen to a stereo file that's out of phase on Soundcloud</sub>
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<iframe width="100%" height="450" scrolling="no" frameborder="no" src="https://w.soundcloud.com/player/?url=https%3A//api.soundcloud.com/tracks/105265611&amp;auto_play=false&amp;hide_related=false&amp;show_comments=true&amp;show_user=true&amp;show_reposts=false&amp;visual=true"></iframe>
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<sub>Listen to the same stereo file summed to mono on Soundcloud</sub>
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<img src="{{ site.baseurl }}/images/Audio_phase_error.png">
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<sub>This is an image of a phasescope with a correlation meter along the bottom. A horizontal waveform is an indication that there is a phase problem.</sub>
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## References
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<sup id="fn1">1. Daniel Keller, [Understanding Audio Phase](http://www.uaudio.com/blog/understanding-audio-phase/), Universal Audio (uaudio.com), 21 June 2011. <a href="#ref1" title="Jump back to footnote 1 in the text.">↩</a></sup>

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